Manner of Articulation

So far, we have concentrated on describing consonant sound in terms of where they are articulated. We can also describe the same sound in terms of how they are articulated. Such a description is necessary if we want to be able to differentiate between some sounds which. In the presiding discussion, we hawed placed in the same category. For example, we can say that [t] and [s] are both voiceless alveolar sounds. How do they differ? They differ in there manner of articulation, that is, in the way they are pronounced. The [t] sound is one of a set of sounds called stated and the [s] sound is one of a set called fricatives.

a.       Stops

Of the sounds we have already mentioned, the set [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g] are all produced by some form of “stopping” of the airstream (very briefly) then letting it go abruptly. This type is consonant sounds, resulting from a blocking or stopping effect on the airstream, is called a stop  (or a ‘plosive). A full description of the [t] sounds at the beginning of a word like ten is as a voiceless alveolar stop. In some discussions, only the manner of articulation is mentioned, as when it is said that the word bed. For example, begins and ends with voiced stops.

b.      Fricatives

The manner of articulation used in producing the set of sounds [f], [v], [], [], [s], [z], [], [3] involves almost blocking the airstream and having the air push through the very narrow opening. As the air is pushed through, a type of friction is produced and the resulting sounds are called fricatives. If you put your open hand in front your mouth when making these sounds, [f] and [s] in particular, you should be able to fell the stream of air being pushed out. The usually pronunciation of the word fish begin and ends with the voiceless fricatives [f] and []. The word those begins and ends with the voiced fricatives.

c.       Affricates

If you combination a brief stopping of the airstream with an obstructed release which causes some friction, you will be able to produce the sounds [t] and [d3]. These are called affricates and occur at the beginning of the word cheap and jeep. In the first of these, there is a voiceless affricates [t], and in the second, a voiced afrricates [d3].

d.      Nasals

Most sounds are produced orally, with the velum raised, preventing airflow from entering the nasal cavity. However, when the velum is lowered and the airstream is allowed to flow out through the nose to produce [m], [n], and [], the sounds are described as nasals. These there sounds are all voiced. The word morning, knitting, the name begin and ends with nasals.

e.       Liquids

The initial sounds in led red are described as liquids. They are both voice. The [l] sound is called a lateral liquid and is formed by letting the airstream flow around the sides of the tongue as the tip of the tongue makes contact with the middle of the alveolar ridge. The [r] sound at the beginning of red is formed with the tongue tip raised and curled back near the alveolar ridge.

f.       Glides

The sounds [w] and [j] are described as glides. They are both voiced and occur at the beginning of we, wet, you and yes. These sounds are typically produced with the  tongue in motion (or ‘gliding’) to or from the position of a vowel and are sometimes called semi-vowels or approximates. The sound [h], as in Hi or hello, is voiceless and can be classified as a glide because of the way it combines with other sound. In some descriptions, it is treated as a fricative.

g.      The glottal stop and the flap

There are to common term used to describe ways of pronouncing consonants whice are not include in the chart presented earlier. The glottal stop represented by the symbol [?], occurs when the space between the vocal cords (the glottis) is closed completely (very briefly), then released. Try saying the expression Oh oh. Between the first Oh and the second oh, we typically product a glottal stop. Some people do it in the middle of Uh-uh (meaning ‘no’), and other put one in place of t when they pronounce Batman quickly. You can also produce a glottal stop if you try to say the word butter of battle without pronouncing the -tt- part in the middle. This sound is considered to be characteristic of cockney (London) speech. (try saying the name Hary Potter as if it didn’t have the H or the tt). You will also hear glottal stops in the pronunciation of some Scottish speakers and also New Yorkers.

If, however, you are an American English speaker who pronounces the word butter in the way that is close to ‘budder’, then you are making a flap. It is represented by [D] or sometimes []. This sound is produced by the tongue tip tapping the alveolar ridge briefly. Many American English speakers have a tendency to ‘flap’ the [t] and [d] consonant between vowels so that in casual speech, the pair latter and ladder, writer and rider, metal and medal do not have distinct middle consonants.

They all have flaps. The student who was told about the importance of Plato in class in wrote it in his notes as play-dough was clearly a victim of a misinterpreted flap. This rather lengthy list of the phonetic features of English consonant sounds is not presented as a challenge to your ability to memorize a lot of terminology and symbols. It is presented as an illustrations of how a thorough description of the physical aspects of speech production will allow us to characterize the sound of spoken English, independently of the vagaries of spelling found written English. There are, however some sounds that we have not yet investigated. These are the types of sounds known as vowels and diphthongs.